Witchcraft: To craft a witch in Othello

A World Where the Dead Language kills the Living Human

Shakespeare’s Othello was written when England was under James I’s reign, while the country was experiencing a height of societal anxiety over the influence of witchcraft. This historical anxiety over a supernatural phenomenon is mirrored in Othello’s extreme insecurity over his wife’s chastity and the possibility of being cuckolded. Individuals in both historical and fictional realities, James, many of his subjects, and Othello, experience intense apprehension over a non-existing entity. Witches are supernatural beings that only exist in people’s imagination, while the lustful and witch-like Desdemona only exists in Othello’s mind after he is beguiled by Iago. This paper serves to explore recurring themes and language of witchcraft and magic in Othello, which likely have been influenced by the political tension over witch hunts and the monarch’s obsession over facilitating this deadly campaign.

Along with the analysis of various symbolic references to witchcraft and witch trials, my argument focuses on the absence of actual witches and the use of magic in Othello’s universe. Ultimately, my aim is to reveal the playwright’s scepticism of James I’s witch hunts and the very existence of witches, in a society where denial of witchcraft could easily propel one to persecution. My claim is that the only witchcraft that takes place both in Othello and James I’s England is not demonic magic but humans’ ability to craft a witch, which dehumanizes an individual via scapegoating and blaming them for social evils.

Correlations marked by repetitive themes of witchcraft create a link between Othello and the historical setting it was written in. “Shakespeare wrote Othello at a time when public anxiety in England over the possible dangers of witchcraft was more than usually intense” (Kaula 112). Thus, Jacobean England’s anxiety over supernatural elements, such as witches and demons, is evident in the Venetian society of Othello. Such societal angst is projected onto marginalized figures like Othello (Moor, racialized other) and Desdemona (woman, ‘inferior’ sex). Brabantio accuses Othello of using “practices of cunning hell” and “mixtures powerful o’er the blood” to entice Desdemona’s love because Brabantio’s perception of Othello is tainted by European racist ideology, which generates his disapproval of a Moor marrying a Senator’s daughter (1.3.104–06). Accusing Othello of using spells, medicines, and witchcraft pertains to racism and the exoticization of Othello. This results in Othello’s dehumanization to a demonic status, who is unable to win the love of another through honest means. Kaula’s claim that Brabantio’s “belief in witchcraft is a delusion and that it arises from and serves as a protection against violent feelings of resentment and fear” also supports this argument, since racism stems from “resentment” and “fear” of the unknown (113). After the accusation, Othello explains himself by describing a realistic scene where Desdemona falls in love with him of her own will. Here, truth-telling language acts as resistance to superstitious ideologies, as Othello gently mocks Brabantio and denies the Senator’s denunciation: “This only is the witchcraft I have used” (1.3.170). Othello’s speech renounces Brabantio’s claim of him using witchcraft by emphasizing the fact that there is no witchcraft.

The turn of events in later acts creates an ironic twist to the plot since, by Act Five, Othello violently interrogates Desdemona, which serves as an imitation of how witch hunters would have interrogated the accused witches. Othello continuously forces Desdemona to “confess thee freely of thy sin” despite her constant denial of any crime: “No, by my life and soul!” (5.2.53,48). This last interrogation sequence before Desdemona’s death follows James I’s “general guidance and advice on the proper punishment of witches: death” (Shearer 50). Whether the accused (Desdemona) admits or denies their crime of witchcraft, their end is already decided for them.

Logic in language, which at one point protected Othello from a delusional, unreasonable accusation of witchcraft, now betrays and misleads him into killing his own wife. Iago frames his speech so that it seems logical and to be based on factual evidence. For example, when framing Desdemona of adultery, Iago’s use of physical material, the handkerchief, helps build legitimacy to push Othello over the edge towards a jealous frenzy. The tangible handkerchief provides superficial evidence to Iago’s story; no matter how farfetched Iago’s lies are, the handkerchief adds weight to his speech and serves as the “ocular proof” Othello so desires (3.3.358). In fact, Iago’s critical understanding of human vulnerability and ways to manipulate another’s weakness is what truly hid the loopholes of his otherwise, highly unpersuasive argument. Similarities between Iago and James I can be drawn within this context. James I placed “Daemonologie, [his] work about the mystical and supernatural, within the framework of [highly arguable but] well-established and recognized scientific literary works” while Iago layers his improbable claims (Desdemona and Cassio are lovers; Roderigo can win over Desdemona with money) with equally improbable but physical, sensuous evidence (handkerchief, Cassio’s dream) that successfully baits his dupes due to their desperation and insecurity (Shearer 47). James I hides the mythical, dubious element of witchcraft with “scientific” facts. Iago compensates for his groundless accusations towards Desdemona by manipulating Othello’s heightened awareness of his unstable social position, both as a husband and a general — which resulted from his identity as a racial minority and the absence of the enemy Turks, who he could have used to preoccupy himself and build his confidence back in the battlefield.

While there are plausible connections between James I and Iago, a more immediate interrelationship can be found between Othello’s antagonist and Black magic in James I’s Daemonologie. In Daemonologie, James I “argues for the idea of dream travel … Devil holds the ability to conjure and subjugate witches to very vivid, lucid dreams” (Shearer 63). This idea is associated with Iago’s story of Cassio’s dream, where Cassio “gripe and wring [Iago’s] hand, / Cry ‘O sweet creature!,’ then kiss [Iago] hard,” misjudging Iago to be Desdemona in his dreamlike trance (3.3.418–19). Here, Iago is similar to a witch subjugated to a “very vivid, lucid dream” induced by the Devil due to the sensuous description of Cassio physically molesting him. Upon hearing about Cassio’s dream, Othello instantly believes Iago’s story without questioning as to why Iago will ever let Cassio sexually grope him in the first place or asking to see the visual evidence of Cassio mooning over Desdemona in his sleep. If we place James I in Othello’s position, the king’s argument of “dream travel” becomes increasingly problematic. There is no way that James I can know about witches’ dreams without experiencing this demonic dream himself, which he cannot justify because if James ever had such a dream, it implies that he also is a witch or has partaken in witchcraft. There is also no textual evidence in Daemonologie where James I has encountered a situation where a witch goes through this process of dream travel in front of his eyes.

Poison and alchemy are used as metaphors in Iago’s asides, which also have strong implications of witchcraft. “But with a little act upon the blood / Burn like mines of sulphur” and “I’ll pour this pestilence into his ear: … So will I turn her virtue into pitch” are among the many examples of Black magic Iago refers to in his speech (3.3.328–29) (2.3.327–31). When Iago exclaims, “I have’t! It is engendered! Hell and night / Must bring this monstrous birth to the world’s light”, it is evident that he also views his nefarious storytelling as an act of demonic conjuring (1.3.397–98). Even though Iago integrates evil, witchy vocabulary such as “pestilence” and “monstrous birth” in his speech, he never actually uses poison or conjures demons throughout the entire play. In fact, not a single character truly uses poison, alchemy, or witchcraft in Othello. Iago simply uses figurative language when he mentions words that connote witchcraft.

Symbols and metaphors are not meant to be taken literally, yet they are recognized with literal significance when they are received by an eager audience. In comparison to the English public who “agreed with the sponsors of the witchcraft statute that the magical arts, whether supernaturally effective or illusory … constituted a serious social danger”, Othello feeds into Iago’s claim of Desdemona’s adultery and hungers for more, being “eaten up with passion” — without pausing to think whether this claim is true or not: “Villain, he sure thou prove my love a whore! / Be sure of it” (Kaula 113) (3.3.389) (3.3.357–58). Words related to witchcraft only exist in the form of figurative language, a mere airy voice that disappears as soon as it is spoken. The weightlessness of the spoken word adds to the tragedy of the play because it is a reminder of how the disastrous ending could have been easily avoided. If only Othello refused to add weight and legitimacy to Iago’s poisonous words, words would have simply remained as words, lying dormant in Iago’s mind without ever being engendered into reality. Iago’s diabolic speech only became poisonous once Othello started to take them seriously. James I and the masses became wary of the dangers of witchcraft and started to eradicate people who they believed to be witches because they believed in the witches’ existence. The mere act of imagining that witches are real results in torturing and burning actual bodies. “‘Thinking’ and ‘seeming’ are not reliable indices to reality” (Kaula 120). In parallel to how the alleged witches of James I’s witch hunts were “usually no more than embittered old crones suffering from an excess of the melancholy humor”, the main victims in Othello are also marked by their societal inferiority (Kaula 112). As a woman, despite being an aristocratic lady, Desdemona is treated as a second class citizen in Venetian society. Brabantio speaks of his daughter as if she is some precious property that has been “abused, stolen from [him], and corrupted” (1.3.62). He also expresses extreme mistrust over Desdemona’s autonomy and ability to make decisions for herself, by simplifying the cause behind her choosing Othello as “spells”, “medicines”, and “witchcraft” (1.3.63,66). After Desdemona marries Othello with the hope “to be free and bounteous to her mind”, she faces a shocking turn of events where Othello suddenly demonizes her in a murderous rage by accusing her of adultery — calling her a “Devil!” (1.3.265) (4.1.227). Mistreatment of Desdemona originates from the deep-rooted, masculinist culture of misogyny that is most prevalent in both Jacobean England and Shakespeare’s fictional Venice. Like most male characters in Othello (Brabantio, Othello, Iago), James I is most likely to have been a misogynist. According to Daemonologie, witches are largely female in gender because they are weaker than men and more perceptible to the Devil’s seductions (Shearer 57). James I’s perception of women and witches closely aligns with that of Iago’s, since they both perceive women/witches to be “materialistic and greedy, doing whatever possible to obtain primitive desires” (Shearer 58). Iago will most readily agree with this statement because when he manipulates Roderigo in Act One Scene Three, Iago asserts that “when [Desdemona] is sated with [Othello’s] body, she will find the errors of her choice” and eventually have sex with Roderigo to “obtain primitive desires” (1.3.343–44). Thus, women are depicted as easy targets for men to project their image of witches in a world dominated by misogyny.

However, women in Othello refuse to be passively victimized by their male counterparts, since they reject the evil projections thrown upon them. Shakespeare’s opinion of witch hunts and misogyny is imbued in his characterization of Desdemona. Unlike Othello who is quick to lose faith in his wife, Desdemona defends and remains faithful to her unfaithful husband. While Iago’s machinations successfully pollute Othello’s mind from seeing the truth, Desdemona tenaciously rejects the lies hauled upon her even in her dying breath: “A guiltless death I die” (5.2.121). It is ironic to note that Desdemona, who is continuously bullied and accused of being a devil and a witch, is the one who remains the farthest from any aspect that resembles witchcraft. On the other hand, Iago and Othello, the accusers whose characters align with James I and the witch hunters, are the ones who resemble Satan and the witches who have fallen prey to his demonic seduction. According to this interpretation, Shakespeare has cleverly turned the tables on James I and his cronies, while revealing the innocents’ deaths which resulted from male authorities’ fanaticism over witch-hunting.

Othello becomes “nothing but the passive recipient of the virulent content that Iago pours into him” because he loses touch with the reason and sensibility that once allowed him to critically assess a situation based on experience (Morris 319). Instead of placing value on factual evidence and prioritizing his love for Desdemona, Othello fixates on his need to control Desdemona and the phantasmic image of her that “has been hijacked and perverted by Iago’s ventriloquial possession of him” (Morris 319). Othello’s perception of Desdemona swings to extreme sides of the spectrum within the virgin/whore dichotomy; either she is idealized as a goddess, or she is demonized as a witch. Rather than loving Desdemona for who she is, Othello is besotted with his skewed idea of Desdemona. This characteristic of Othello does not go unnoticed by Iago, and Othello’s obsession with the projected image rather than the physical entity is amplified after Iago tells him that Cassio is in possession of his gift to Desdemona: “a handkerchief / Spotted with strawberries … did I today / See Cassio wipe his beard with” (3.3.431–36). Desdemona’s possession of his handkerchief is a big deal for Othello, as he is more preoccupied with the handkerchief and its symbolic meaning than his wife’s happiness and well-being. Therefore, when it is confirmed that Desdemona lost the love token, Othello loses his last bit of sanity and comes to the conclusion that “she must die” (5.1.6). Murdering the body is natural for Othello because he has only been in love with his perfect idea of Desdemona, which is nothing but an illusion, simply contained within the body. In contrast to Othello, “for [Desdemona] the person is more important than the symbolic substitute” (Kaula 123). Othello’s tragic ending suggests that by idealizing/demonizing others, we are already placing more significance on projected phantasmic images than real people. Unfortunately, lifeless beliefs are placed at a higher value than living beings. James I’s imagined identity of certain women ended up killing those very people. Othello acts as Shakespeare’s mouthpiece for the masses, for them to see through the madness and realize that in reality, those who are burned are not witches but people.

Thus far, I have analyzed Othello as Shakespeare’s allegory and critique of James I’s politics over witch hunts by explicating certain lines that connote various aspects of witchcraft. Despite the text’s rich allusion to witchcraft, my emphasis is on Shakespeare’s intention behind strictly excluding the presence of real witches and witchcraft in Othello’s universe. “Unlike Shakespeare’s other major tragedies, Othello contains no manifestations of the supernatural” (Kaula 112). This concept of “no manifestations of the supernatural” applies even to the most demonic of the characters: Iago. Throughout the play, Iago’s conspiracy against Othello and his lack of a clear motivation behind it seems to equate his identity to the devil. However, “Iago does not necessarily appear to be imbued with preternatural relevance” (Morris 327). Iago “fascinates his victim … not with actual potions and spells, [but] with his diabolical wit”, and he directly states: “Thou know’st we work by wit, and not by witchcraft” (Kaula 117) (2.3.354). There is no supernatural entity or usage of demonic power that aids Iago in controlling his dupes. Iago is a mortal in every aspect. When Othello “look[s] down toward [Iago’s] feet”, he seeks for devil’s cloven hooves, some confirmation that Iago’s evil is inhuman, but all he sees is a pair of human feet (5.2.281). Afterwards, Othello remarks, “If that thou be’st a devil, I cannot kill thee”, and stabs Iago with his sword (5.2.282). Iago is not “killed” from the wound, but he “bleed[s]” like any mortal human being (5.2.284). This proof of Iago’s mortality is what makes Iago’s character the more frightening because he is not a demon but simply a human, like us. His villainous character embodies what atrocities humanity is capable of (mass human slaughter from James I’s witch hunts) without Satan’s intervention. We cannot blame any devils or witches for our corruption because these evil entities exist internally in the human psyche. “Othello … was deceived and transformed not by supernatural means but through a combination of villainous cunning and his own stupidity” (Kaula 114). Like Othello and Iago, we are culpable for our own demise. The remains of the day after England’s witch hunts were not glory or justice but the ashes of burned corpses.

Works Cited

Kaula, David. “Othello Possessed: Notes on Shakespeare’s use of Magic and Witchcraft.” Shakespeare Studies 2 (1966): 112–127. ProQuest. Web. 1 Apr. 2019.

Morris, Blair. “Demonic Ventriloquism and Venetian Skepticism in ‘Othello.’” Studies in English Literature, 1500–1900, vol. 53, no. 2, 2013, pp. 311–335, www.jstor.org/stable/24510001.

Shakespeare, William. Othello. 1622. Edited by Jessica Slights, Broadview / Internet Shakespeare Editions, 2017, pp. 76–218.

Shearer, Kelsee. “King James’ Daemonologie and Scottish Witchcraft Trials.” All Master’s Theses, Central Washington University ScholarWorks, 2016, pp. 1–91, https://digitalcommons.cwu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1394&context=etd